Vaccination Flashcards
What was the primary method of preventing smallpox before Edward Jenner's discovery?
Inoculation was the primary method of preventing smallpox before Jenner's discovery.
Who introduced inoculation to Britain and in what year?
Lady Mary Wortley Montagu introduced inoculation to Britain in 1718.
Describe the process of inoculation.
Inoculation involved making a cut in a patient's arm and soaking it in pus taken from the swelling of someone who already had a mild form of smallpox.
What was a significant risk associated with inoculation?
A significant risk of inoculation was that patients had to experience smallpox before becoming immune, and some died as a result.
What observation led Edward Jenner to investigate vaccination?
Edward Jenner observed that milkmaids who contracted the milder cowpox did not get smallpox.
In what year did Jenner test his theory, and on whom?
Jenner tested his theory in 1796 on a small boy named James Phipps.
What was the origin of the term 'vaccination'?
Jenner coined the term 'vaccination' from the Latin word for cow, 'vacca'.
Why was Jenner's use of an experiment considered unusual at the time?
Although experiments were used during the Renaissance, it was still unusual for doctors to test their theories in the 1700s.
What was one reason some people resisted vaccination?
Some doctors who administered the older inoculation method saw vaccination as a threat to their livelihood.
How did Parliament support Jenner's discovery?
Parliament gave Jenner £10,000 in 1802 to open a vaccination clinic and a further £20,000 later.
When was vaccination against smallpox made free and compulsory in Britain?
Vaccination against smallpox was made free for infants in 1840 and compulsory in 1853.
What was the prevailing government philosophy in Britain that made the vaccination policy surprising?
The prevailing philosophy was laissez-faire, meaning the government should not interfere in people's lives.
What was a limitation of Jenner's understanding of vaccination?
Jenner did not know why his vaccine worked, which prevented him from developing other vaccines.
What scientific theory, published later, enabled the development of other vaccines?
The Germ Theory, published by Pasteur and others, enabled the development of vaccines against other diseases.
What was the prevailing belief about the cause of disease before the Germ Theory?
Before the Germ Theory, people believed in miasma (bad air) and spontaneous generation, and thought disease caused germs.
Who is credited with suggesting that germs cause disease?
Louis Pasteur was the first to suggest that germs cause disease.
How did Pasteur prove that germs were in the air?
Pasteur showed that sterilized water in a closed flask stayed sterile, while sterilized water in an open flask bred germs.
What invention by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek was important for the development of the Germ Theory?
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek's invention of the microscope in the 17th century was important.
Why was the Germ Theory initially met with skepticism?
People found it hard to believe that tiny microbes could cause disease, and each germ responsible for a specific disease had to be identified individually.
What impact did the Germ Theory have on public health in Britain?
The Germ Theory inspired Joseph Lister to develop antiseptics, proved John Snow's findings about cholera, and linked disease to poor living conditions, leading to the 1875 Public Health Act.
What scientific methods did Robert Koch use to identify microbes?
Koch used agar jelly for cultures, dyes to stain bacteria, and photography to record his findings.
What specific diseases did Robert Koch identify the microbes for?
Koch identified the microbes for anthrax, septicaemia, tuberculosis, and cholera.
What was Florence Nightingale's main contribution to healthcare?
Florence Nightingale improved hospital hygiene and raised nursing standards, transforming nursing into a respectable profession.
What was the death rate in the Barrack Hospital in Scutari before Nightingale's intervention, and what did it fall to?
The death rate was 42% before Nightingale's intervention and fell to 2% two years later.
Who was Mary Seacole and what was her contribution?
Mary Seacole was a nurse who also served in the Crimean War, nursing soldiers on the battlefield and establishing a hospital, shop, and canteen.
What was the significance of Nightingale's book 'Notes on Nursing'?
Her book explained her methods, emphasizing hygiene and professionalism, and became a standard textbook for nurses.
What was the 'Black Period' of surgery?
The period between 1846 and 1870, when longer operations due to anaesthetics led to increased death rates from infection due to unhygienic surgical practices.
What problem did anaesthetics solve in surgery?
Anaesthetics solved the problem of pain during surgery.
What were some early anaesthetics and their limitations?
Nitrous oxide (laughing gas) and ether were identified, but early use was often ignored or risky. Chloroform became widely used but could affect the heart.
How did anaesthetics inadvertently lead to a rise in death rates?
Anaesthetics allowed for longer, more complex operations, but surgeons' lack of knowledge about hygiene led to increased deaths from infection.
What two main approaches are used to reduce infection during surgery?
Antiseptic methods (killing germs near wounds) and aseptic methods (preventing germs from reaching wounds).
Who pioneered the use of antiseptics in surgery?
Joseph Lister pioneered the use of antiseptics.
What substance did Joseph Lister use as an antiseptic, and what were the results?
Lister used carbolic acid sprays, which immediately reduced death rates from as high as 50% to around 15%.
How did aseptic surgery differ from antiseptic surgery?
Aseptic surgery focuses on creating a germ-free environment, whereas antiseptic surgery focuses on killing germs that come into contact with wounds.
When were surgical gloves invented, and by whom?
Surgical gloves were invented by William Halsted in 1889.
What were the living conditions like in cities during the Industrial Revolution that contributed to disease?
Cities were overcrowded, dirty, and lacked proper water and waste facilities, with shared privies and contaminated water supplies.
What was the prevailing theory for the cause of cholera before the Germ Theory?
The prevailing theory was miasma (bad air).
Who was John Snow and what was his key discovery regarding cholera?
John Snow was a London doctor who showed that cholera was linked to contaminated water, specifically by mapping cases to a particular water pump.
How did John Snow's investigation of the Broad Street cholera outbreak end?
Snow convinced the local council to remove the handle from the Broad Street water pump, which stopped the outbreak.
What was the 'Great Stink' of 1858?
The 'Great Stink' was caused by sewage in the River Thames, which forced the government to plan a new sewer system.
What was the main limitation of the 1848 Public Health Act?
The Act's impact was limited because towns could choose whether to set up health boards, and those that did often refused to spend money.
How did the Second Reform Act of 1867 influence public health policy?
It gave more industrial workers the vote, allowing them to pressure the government to address health concerns.
What were the key requirements of the 1875 Public Health Act?
It forced councils to appoint health inspectors, maintain sewerage systems, and keep streets clean.
What was the Artisans' Dwellings Act of 1875?
This act allowed local councils to buy slums and rebuild them according to new housing standards.
How did the 1875 Public Health Act differ from the 1848 Act in terms of effectiveness?
The 1875 Act was more effective because its provisions were compulsory, unlike the voluntary nature of the 1848 Act.