The medulla oblongata relays motor and sensory impulses between other parts of the brain and contains visceral centers.

The pons acts as a bridge, relaying sensory information between the cerebellum and the brainstem.

The midbrain controls visual and auditory reflexes from the corpora quadrigemina and automatic behaviors necessary for survival.

The thalamus is where nearly all communication to the cerebral cortex must pass through.

The hypothalamus functions to regulate body temperature, hunger, and thirst.

The cerebellum smooths and coordinates body movements.

The cerebrum is responsible for logical thought and conscious awareness of the environment.

The cerebral cortex is the home of the conscious mind.

The precentral gyrus controls voluntary motor functions.

The postcentral gyrus receives somatic sensory information.

The limbic system contains structures that regulate and cause emotional responses.

The reticular activating system is responsible for the arousal of the brain.

The spinal cord functions in conduction and reflexes.

Sensory nerves contain only sensory axons and take information to the central nervous system.

Motor nerves contain only motor axons and take information away from the central nervous system.

The cervical plexus serves the head, neck, and shoulders.

The brachial plexus is the major nerve plexus for the upper limbs.

The lumbar plexus serves the pelvic and anterior leg.

The sacral plexus serves the posterior leg.

Chordae tendineae are strong bands that connect the papillary muscles to the heart valves, preventing prolapse.

Heart valves prevent the backflow of blood.

The SA node is the electrical event that begins each heartbeat.

The AV node can have its own impulses, but when connected, impulses are delayed, causing ventricular contraction.

Purkinje fibers lie in the ventricle walls and cause the final part of ventricular contraction.

Arteries are vessels that take blood away from the heart.

Veins take blood to the heart.

Muscular arteries regulate blood flow to organs or organ parts.

Elastic arteries are the largest arteries next to the heart, filled with elastic fibers.

Pulmonary ventilation is the movement of air in and out of the lungs.

External respiration is gas exchange at the lungs.

Internal respiration is gas exchange at the capillary beds of the systemic circuits.

Hepatic portal blood is deoxygenated, nutrient-rich blood that goes to the liver.

The vestibule is the area where both the urethra and vagina open.

Ingestion is the intake of food.

Propulsion is the movement of substances through the GI tract by peristalsis.

Mechanical digestion is the breakdown of food into smaller parts by mechanical means.

Chemical digestion is the breakdown of food by enzymes.

Absorption is the movement of nutrients into our capillary beds or lymphatic system.

The pleura are the serous membranes of the lungs.

The mediastinum is the middle section of the thoracic cavity containing the heart.

Peristalsis is used for propulsion in the gastrointestinal tract by the layers of smooth muscle.

Segmentation is used for mechanical digestion and mixes substances in the GI tract.

The peritoneum is the serous membrane in the abdominal cavity.

The mesentery is a double layer of peritoneum.

The serosa refers to the outside layer of organs within the peritoneal cavity, also known as the visceral peritoneum.

The adventitia is the outer layer of organs outside the peritoneal cavity.

The pyloric sphincter controls the release of substances from the stomach into the duodenum.

The teniae coli are thickenings of the longitudinal muscle in the large intestine that cause puckering called haustra.

Haustra are the puckering found in the colon.

The urinary trigone is the triangular region of the bladder where the ureters enter and the urethra exits.

The renal medulla is the inner region of the kidney that contains all the pyramids.

The renal columns are projections of the cortex in between the renal pyramids.

The renal cortex is the outside region of the kidney where most of the body's blood is found.

Minor and major calyces collect urine from the nephrons and funnel it to the renal pelvis.

The renal pelvis functions to collect urine from the major calyces and send it to the ureter.

The detrusor muscle is the thick muscle in the bladder wall responsible for contraction during urination.

The epiglottis routes food and air to their proper channels, preventing food from entering the trachea.

The trachea is the windpipe, serving as a passageway for air to the lungs.

Primary bronchi serve each lung, secondary bronchi serve each lobe, and tertiary bronchi serve each segment of the lungs.

The alveoli are the actual locations within the lungs where gas exchange occurs.

The mucosal nerve plexus functions for the mucosal smooth muscle and gland secretions.

The myenteric nerve plexus functions to control peristalsis and segmentation in the GI tract.

Ameloblasts function to deposit enamel buds.

Odontoblasts secrete and maintain dentin.

Cementoblasts produce cementum.

The periodontal ligament consists of collagen fibers that run from the cementum to the bone, anchoring the tooth.

Cementum is the calcified connective tissue that attaches the tooth to the periodontal ligament.

The esophagus collects food from the pharynx and sends it to the stomach.

Rugae are the ridges in the stomach that flatten as the stomach fills.

The ileum is the largest region of the small intestine where most absorption occurs.

The large intestine functions for water and electrolyte absorption.

The pancreas makes enzymes and bicarbonate juices used for digestion.

The small intestine is the main site of nutrient absorption and digestion.

Circular folds, villi, and microvilli function to increase the surface area of the small intestine for absorption.

The stomach turns food into a paste by mechanical means.

Parietal cells secrete hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor.

Chief cells secrete pepsinogen.

Enteroendocrine cells in the small intestine secrete hormones like cholecystokinin (CCK) and secretin, which signal the gallbladder and pancreas.

Enteroendocrine cells in the stomach secrete gastrin.

Absorptive cells function to uptake digested nutrients.

The crypts of Lieberkühn contain epithelial cells that secrete intestinal juices.

Paneth cells secrete enzymes that destroy certain bacteria.

Peyer's patches are aggregated areas of lymphatic tissue in the small intestine.

Brunner's glands secrete a bicarbonate-rich mucus.

The gallbladder stores bile.

The liver makes and secretes bile, which aids in fat emulsification.

The appendix functions to neutralize pathogens.

Kupffer cells are macrophages in the liver that kill bacteria and foreign objects.

The duodenum receives chyme from the stomach and is the site of action for liver and pancreas secretions.

The parotid salivary glands secrete enzymes in saliva.

The sublingual salivary glands produce mostly mucous saliva.

The submandibular salivary glands produce both serous and mucous saliva.

The kidney makes urine.

The nephron is the microscopic structure responsible for making urine.

The ureter transports urine from the kidney to the bladder.

The bladder functions to store and expel urine.

The urethra propels urine to the outside.

Interstitial cells produce testosterone.

Myoid cells help deliver sperm to the epididymis by contracting sperm out of the seminiferous tubules.

Sertoli cells surround spermagonia and form the blood-testes barrier.

The testes are the primary male sex organs because they produce sperm and secrete testosterone.

The epididymis is the organ where sperm mature.

The ductus deferens stores and transports sperm.

The ejaculatory duct is where sperm and seminal fluid mix.

The prostate gland secretes seminal fluid and is located just inferior to the bladder.

The bulbourethral glands secrete pre-seminal fluid, which lubricates and eliminates traces of acid from urine.

The seminal vesicles secrete the majority of seminal fluid and are located on the posterior side of the bladder.

The penis is the male reproductive organ for the delivery of sperm.

The seminiferous tubules are the actual sperm factories.

The ovary is the primary female sex organ because it produces eggs and estrogen.

The uterine tube is where fertilization occurs.

The fimbriae are finger-like projections that sweep the egg into the uterine tube.

The ampulla is the middle portion of the uterine tube where fertilization specifically occurs.

The uterus is where the fetus develops.

The cervix is the neck of the uterus and is blocked during fetal development for protection.

The ovarian cycle is the cycle of the ovary that causes the development of the egg.

The uterine cycle is the cycle of the uterus that prepares for fetal implantation.

The main parts of the diencephalon are the hypothalamus, thalamus, and epithalamus.

The main parts of the brainstem are the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata.

The cell bodies of sensory neurons are located in the dorsal root ganglia, external to the spinal cord.

The cell bodies of somatic motor neurons are located in the ventral horn of the spinal cord.

Interneurons are located in the posterior horn of the spinal cord.

Preganglionic autonomic cell bodies are located in the lateral horn of the spinal cord.

Postganglionic autonomic cell bodies are located in autonomic ganglia.

Sensory information is received by the primary sensory cortex, then goes to the sensory association area, then to the multimodal association area, then to the premotor cortex, and finally to the primary motor cortex.

The dorsal column pathway is for fine touch and pressure.

The lateral spinothalamic pathway deals with pain and temperature.

The spinocerebellar pathways are for proprioception (detecting stretch in muscles and ligaments).

The ventral spinothalamic pathway is for crude touch and pressure.

The descending motor pathways include the pyramidal pathway and the extrapyramidal pathways (tectospinal, vestibulospinal, rubrospinal, and reticulospinal).

The layers of the meninges from superficial to deep are the dura mater (periosteal and meningeal layers), arachnoid mater, and pia mater.

The subdural space contains venous blood.

The subarachnoid space contains cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

The vagus nerve (cranial nerve X) is unique as it extends below the neck region, serving various organs in the thorax and abdomen.

Sympathetic responses generally increase blood glucose, divert blood away from the GI tract and urinary system, increase heart rate and blood pressure, and decrease peristalsis.

The somatic division innervates motor neurons to skeletal muscles.

The ANS innervates cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glands.

Preganglionic parasympathetic fibers are long, while preganglionic sympathetic fibers are shorter.

Postganglionic parasympathetic fibers are short, while postganglionic sympathetic fibers are longer.

The adrenal medulla secretes large amounts of epinephrine and norepinephrine into the bloodstream.

Neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, basophils (Never Let Monkeys Eat Bananas).

Neutrophils are leukocytes responsible for destroying bacteria.

Eosinophils are involved in ending allergic reactions and parasitic infections.

Basophils are cell mediators of inflammation, similar to mast cells.

Lymphocytes are B and T cells involved in the immune response.

Monocytes change into macrophages for non-specific phagocytosis.

Plasma is the top layer (about 55%), the buffy coat (leukocytes and platelets) is the middle layer (less than 1%), and the hematocrit (erythrocytes) is the bottom layer.

White blood cells are considered true cells because they possess a nucleus.

The left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the pulmonary system via the pulmonary veins.

The left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood into the aorta.

The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the systemic circulation via the vena cavae.

The right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood into the pulmonary artery.

The mitral valve has two cusps.

The tricuspid, aortic, and pulmonary valves each contain three cusps.

The left ventricle is the largest because it must pump blood throughout the entire systemic circuit, which is longer and has more resistance.

Pectinate muscles are horizontal ridges found in the atria.

Trabeculae carneae are irregular ridges of muscle found in the ventricles.

The fibrous pericardium is the tough outer layer that protects and anchors the heart.

The serous pericardium consists of two layers (parietal and visceral) that produce pericardial fluid to reduce friction.

The visceral layer of the serous pericardium is also known as the epicardium.

The myocardium is the cardiac muscle layer of the heart wall.

The endocardium is the endothelial layer that lines the heart chambers and valves.

The sympathetic nervous system increases the force and rate of heart contraction.

The parasympathetic nervous system controls the rate of the SA and AV nodes.

The coronary arteries supply blood to the heart muscle.

Blood drains from the heart muscle via the great cardiac vein, middle cardiac vein, or small cardiac vein into the coronary sinus, which then empties into the right atrium.

The foramen ovale allows blood to bypass the right ventricle and go directly from the right atrium to the left atrium.

The ductus arteriosus allows blood to bypass the lungs by shunting blood from the pulmonary artery to the aorta.

The ductus venosus bypasses the liver, allowing oxygenated blood from the umbilical vein to flow directly into the inferior vena cava.

The three tunics are the tunica intima, tunica media, and tunica adventitia.

The tunica media is the largest tunic in arteries, containing smooth muscle and elastic fibers.

The tunica adventitia is often the largest tunic in veins, providing structural support.

Oxygenated blood is found in the left side of the heart, pulmonary veins, and systemic arteries.

Deoxygenated blood is found in the right side of the heart, pulmonary arteries, and systemic veins.

Lymph is propelled by the contraction of skeletal muscles, the pulsing of arteries, and movements of the body.

Lymph flows from capillaries to collecting vessels, then to trunks, then to ducts, and finally to the blood.

The right lymphatic duct drains the superior right quadrant of the body.

The thoracic duct drains the other three-fourths of the body.

The right lung has two fissures and three lobes, while the left lung has one fissure and two lobes.

Normal inspiration involves the contraction of the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles.

Normal expiration is a passive process involving the relaxation of the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles.

Forced inspiration involves accessory muscles such as the sternocleidomastoid, scalenes, and pectoralis muscles.

Forced expiration involves the abdominal muscles.

During inspiration, the thoracic cavity volume increases, pressure decreases, and air moves in. During expiration, the thoracic cavity volume decreases, pressure increases, and air moves out.

The thyroid cartilage is the largest laryngeal cartilage and contains the laryngeal prominence (Adam's apple).

The cricoid cartilage forms a complete ring and is the inferior-most cartilage of the larynx.

The arytenoid cartilages hold the vocal cords in place and move them to produce sound.

The general functions of respiration include pulmonary ventilation, external respiration, transport of respiratory gases, and internal respiration.

Starch digestion begins in the mouth.

Protein digestion begins in the stomach.

Most chemical digestion and absorption occur in the small intestine.

The nasopharynx contains the pharyngeal tonsils and the tubal tonsils, and the pharyngeal-tympanic tube.

The oropharynx contains the palatine tonsils and the lingual tonsils.

The pharyngeal-tympanic tube connects the nasopharynx to the middle ear, equalizing pressure.

Peyer's patches are located in the small intestine.

The crypts of Lieberkühn secrete intestinal juices.

Brunner's glands secrete a bicarbonate-rich mucus in the duodenum.

Incisor teeth are used for cutting and tearing off pieces of food.

Molar and premolar teeth are used for grinding food.

The parts of the large intestine include the cecum, appendix, ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, and anal canal.

The hepatic flexure is the bend between the ascending and transverse colon, and the splenic flexure is the bend between the transverse and descending colon.

The crown of a tooth is the visible part, covered by enamel, the hardest substance in the body.

The five stages of digestion are ingestion, propulsion, mechanical digestion, chemical digestion, absorption, and defecation.

The liver secretes bile, which emulsifies fats, aiding in their digestion.

The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes and bicarbonate juices into the small intestine.

Bile flows from the right and left hepatic ducts to the common hepatic duct, then to the common bile duct, which enters the duodenum.

The three types are glomerular capillaries (filtration), peritubular capillaries, and vasa recta (secretion and reabsorption).

The three processes are filtration (glomerulus to capsule), reabsorption (tubules to blood), and secretion (blood to tubules).

Stratified ciliated columnar epithelium is found in the respiratory system.

Transitional epithelium is found in the urinary system, specifically the bladder and ureters.

Stratified squamous epithelium is found in the openings of the digestive tube and areas of voluntary swallowing.

Renal artery -> segmental arteries -> interlobar arteries -> arcuate arteries -> cortical radiate arteries -> afferent arterioles -> glomerulus -> efferent arterioles -> peritubular capillaries/vasa recta.

Peritubular capillaries/vasa recta -> cortical radiate veins -> arcuate veins -> interlobar veins -> renal vein.

Urea, uric acid, and creatinine are normally found in urine. Glucose is typically absent.

Collecting ducts -> minor calyx -> major calyx -> renal pelvis -> ureter -> bladder -> urethra.

Glomerular capsule -> proximal convoluted tubule -> loop of Henle -> distal convoluted tubule -> collecting duct.

The external urethral sphincter is skeletal muscle, located in the urogenital diaphragm, and voluntarily controlled. The internal urethral sphincter is smooth muscle, located at the bladder-urethra junction, and involuntarily controlled.

Spermatogonia -> primary spermatocytes -> secondary spermatocytes -> spermatids -> sperm.

Primordial follicles -> primary follicles -> secondary follicles -> vesicular (Graafian) follicle containing the mature oocyte.

The phases are menstruation, proliferative phase, and secretory phase.